„Spirit“ – Versionsunterschied

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Version vom 10. April 2024, 18:11 Uhr

Auszug: "spirituelle Daseinszustand zu englisch Spirit, aus dem der Wortbegriff Spiritualität hervorging, Spirit als Kurzform von „holy spirit“, auch „holy ghost“, im christlichen Sinne Heiliger Geist, zu Spiritual als die Bezeichnung der katholischen Kirche für Geistliche, deren Priester, Seelsorger und Betreuer deren christlichen Glaubensgemeinschaften, zu lateinisch Spiritus Sanctus „Geist geheiligter“zu griechisch hágion pneûma für „heiliger Atem, heiliger Hauch, heilige Lebenskraft“."

In philosophy and religion, spirit is the vital principle or animating essence within humans or, in some views, all living things. Although views of spirit vary between different belief systems, when spirit is contrasted with the soul, the former is often seen as a basic natural force, principle or substance, whereas the latter is used to described the organized structure of an individual being's consciousness, in humans including their personality. Spirit as a substance may also be contrasted with matter, where it is usually seen as more subtle, an idea put forth for example in the Principia Mathematica.^[1]

In der Philosophie und Religion ist der Spirit das lebenswichtige Prinzip oder die belebende Essenz im Menschen oder, in manchen Ansichten, in allen Lebewesen. Obwohl die Ansichten über den Spirit in den verschiedenen Glaubenssystemen unterschiedlich sind, wird bei der Gegenüberstellung des Spirit mit der Seele ersterer oft als grundlegende Naturkraft, Prinzip oder Substanz angesehen, während letzterer zur Beschreibung der organisierten Struktur des Bewusstsein eines einzelnen Wesens verwendet wird Menschen einschließlich ihrer Persönlichkeit. Spirit als Substanz kann auch mit Materie verglichen werden, wo er normalerweise als subtiler angesehen wird, eine Idee, die beispielsweise in den Principia Mathematica zum Ausdruck kommt.[1]

Etymology

The word spirit came into Middle English via Old French esperit. Its source is Latin spīritus, whose original meaning was "breath, breathing" and hence "spirit, soul, courage, vigor";^[2] its ultimate origin is a Proto-Indo-European root *(s)peis.

In Latin, spīritus was distinct from Latin anima, whose etymological meaning was also "breathing" (PIE root *h₂enh₁-),^[3] yet which had taken a slightly different meaning, namely "soul".

The distinction between "soul" and "spirit" in English mirrors that between "psykhē" and "pneuma" in Classical Greek, with both words having a connection to breathing:

psykhē (ψυχή), originally "cold air", hence "breath of life" and "soul"^[2] (PIE root *bhes- "to breathe").^[4]
pneuma (πνεῦμα) "breath, motile air, spirit", from verb pnéō (πνέω) "to breathe".

A distinction between soul and spirit also developed in the Abrahamic religions: Arabic nafs (نفس) opposite rūḥ (روح); Hebrew neshama (נְשָׁמָה‎ nəšâmâh) or nephesh (נֶ֫פֶשׁ‎ nép̄eš) (in Hebrew neshama comes from the root NŠM or "breath") opposite ruach (רוּחַ‎ rúaħ). (Note, however, that in Semitic just as in Indo-European, this dichotomy has not always been as neat historically as it has come to be taken over a long period of development: Both נֶ֫פֶשׁ‎ (root נפשׁ‎) and רוּחַ‎ (root רוח‎), as well as cognate words in various Semitic languages, including Arabic, also preserve meanings involving miscellaneous air phenomena: "breath", "wind", and even "odour".^[5]^[6]^[7])

Related terms

Similar concepts in other languages include Chinese Ling and hun (靈魂) and Sanskrit akasha / atman^[2] (see also prana). Some languages use a word for spirit often closely related (if not synonymous) to mind. Examples include the German Geist (related to the English word ghost) or the French l'esprit.^[8]English versions of the Bible most commonly translate the Hebrew word ruach (רוח; wind) as "the spirit."^[9]

Alternatively, Hebrew texts commonly use the word nephesh. Kabbalists regard nephesh as one of the five parts of the Jewish soul, where nephesh(animal) refers to the physical being and its animal instincts. Similarly, Scandinavian, Baltic, and Slavic languages use the words for breath to express concepts similar to "the spirit".^[2]

Views

Ancient Greece

In Ancient Greek medicine and philosophy generally, the spirit (pneuma, literally "breath") was thought to be the animating force in living creatures.

In Stoicism, spirit is an all-pervading force frequently identified with God. The soul (psyche) was thought to be a particular kind of pneuma, which was present in humans and animals, but not in plants.^[10]

Christianity

The Christian New Testament uses the term pneuma to refer to "spirit", "spiritual" and specifically to the Holy Spirit.^[11] The relationship between the Holy Spirit in Christianity and spirit in other religions is unclear. The distinction between psyche and pneuma may be borrowed from the Hellenistic religions through Hellenistic Jews such as Philo, a view held by the so-called History of religions school.^[12]

However, others think that the Holy Spirit may actually resemble the Stoic concept of the anima mundi, or world soul, more than the pneuma. According to theologian Erik Konsmo, there is no relationship between the pneuma in Greek philosophy and the pneuma in Christianity beyond the use of the word itself.^[12]

The new religious movement Christian Science uses "Spirit" as one of seven synonyms for God, as in: "Principle; Mind; Soul; Spirit; Life; Truth; Love"^[13]

Latter Day Saint prophet Joseph Smith Jr. (1805-1844) rejected the concept of spirit as incorporeal or without substance: "There is no such thing as immaterial matter. All spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned by purer eyes."^[14] Regarding the soul, Joseph Smith wrote "And the Gods formed man from the dust of the ground, and took his spirit (that is, the man’s spirit), and put it into him; and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living soul."^[15] Thus, the soul is the combination of a spirit with a body (although most members of the Church use "soul" and "spirit" interchangeably). In Latter-Day Saint scripture, spirits are sometimes referred to as "intelligences".^[16] However, other LDS scriptures teach that God organized the spirits out of a pre-existing substance called "intelligence" or "the light of truth".^[17] While this may seem confusing, compare how a programmer writes an algorithm by organizing lines of logical code. The logic always existed, independent of the programmer, but it is the creator who organizes it into a living spirit / intelligence / soul.

17th century Europe

As recently as 1628 and 1633 respectively, both William Harvey and René Descartes still speculated that somewhere within the body, in a special locality, there was a "vital spirit" or "vital force", which animated the whole bodily frame, just as the engine in a factory moves the machinery in it.^[18]

Animism

Various forms of animism, such as Japan's Shinto and African traditional religion, focus on invisible beings that represent or connect with plants, animals, or landforms (in Japanese: kami): translators usually employ the English word "spirit" when trying to express the idea of such entities.^[19] Compare the concepts of ancestral spirits and of spirit animals.

Chinese culture

The traditional Chinese concept of qi is a kind of vital force forming part of any living being. The exact meaning of the term morphed over the course of the development of Chinese philosophy. The literal meaning of the Chinese language term qi (气), like many analogous concepts in other cultures, derives from the word for "breath";^[2] this may have been the meaning of the word in the Analects of Confucius.^[20]

Gods, especially anthropromorphic gods, are sometimes thought to have qi and be a reflection of the microcosm of qi in humans.^[21] Qi also was in natural forces, where it could be controlled by gods and harnessed by magicians.^[22]

Jung

According to C. G. Jung (in a lecture delivered to the literary Society of Augsburg, 20 October 1926, on the theme of “Nature and Spirit”):

The connection between spirit and life is one of those problems involving factors of such complexity that we have to be on our guard lest we ourselves get caught in the net of words in which we seek to ensnare these great enigmas. For how can we bring into the orbit of our thought those limitless complexities of life which we call "Spirit" or "Life" unless we clothe them in verbal concepts, themselves mere counters of the intellect? The mistrust of verbal concepts, inconvenient as it is, nevertheless seems to me to be very much in place in speaking of fundamentals. "Spirit" and "Life" are familiar enough words to us, very old acquaintances in fact, pawns that for thousands of years have been pushed back and forth on the thinker's chessboard. The problem must have begun in the grey dawn of time, when someone made the bewildering discovery that the living breath which left the body of the dying man in the last death-rattle meant more than just air in motion. It can scarcely be an accident onomatopoeic words like ruach (Hebrew), ruch (Arabic), roho (Swahili) mean 'spirit' no less clearly than πνεύμα(pneuma, Greek) and spiritus (Latin).^[23]

Islam

People have frequently conceived of spirit as a supernatural being, or non-physical entity; for example, a demon, ghost, fairy, or angel.^[2] In ancient Islamic terminology however, the term spirit (rūḥ), applies only to "pure" spirits, but not to other invisible creatures, such as jinn, demons and angels.^[24]^{[need quotation to verify]}

Psychical research

Psychical research, "In all the publications of the Society for Psychical Research the term 'spirit' stands for the personal stream of consciousnesswhatever else it may ultimately be proved to imply or require" (James H. Hyslop, 1919).^[25]

Death

The concepts of spirit and soul often overlap,^[26] and some systems propose that both survive bodily death.^[27]

In some belief systems, the "spirit" may separate from the body upon death and remain in the world in the form of a ghost, i.e. a manifestation of the spirit of a deceased person.

References

Burtt, Edwin A. (2003). Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. p. 275.
See François 2009, pp. 187–197.
anə-, from *ə₂enə₁-. Watkins, Calvert. 2000. The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, second edition. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., p. 4. Also available online. (NB: Watkins uses ə₁, ə₂, ə₃ as fully equivalent variants for h₁, h₂, h₃, respectively, for the notation of Proto-Indo-European laryngeal segments.)
bhes-² (with zero grade *bhs- devoicing leading to *phs- and later ps- in Classical Greek). Watkins, Calvert. 2000. The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, second edition. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 2000, p. 11. Also available online.
Koehler, L., Baumgartner, W., Richardson, M. E. J., & Stamm, J. J. (1999). The Hebrew and Aramaic lexicon of the Old Testament (electronic ed.) (711). Leiden; New York: E.J. Brill.
Brown, F., Driver, S. R., & Briggs, C. A. (2000). Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (electronic ed.) (659). Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems. (N.B. Corresponds closely to printed editions.)^{[ISBN missing]}
Brown, F., Driver, S. R., & Briggs, C. A. (2000). Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (electronic ed.) (924ff.). Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems. (N.B. Corresponds closely to printed editions.)^{[ISBN missing]}
See the Wiktionary entries for Geist and esprit.
"Ruach: Spirit or Wind or ???". BiblicalHeritage.org. Archived from the original on 6 October 2015.
"Stoicism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. January 20, 2023. Retrieved July 3, 2023.
Companion Bible – KJV by E. W. Bullinger, Kregel Publications, 1999. ISBN 0825420997. p. 146.
Konsmo, Erik (2010). The Pauline Metaphors of the Holy Spirit: The Intangible Spirit's Tangible Presence in the Life of the Christian. New York: Peter Lang. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4331-0691-0.
Eddy, Mary Baker (1875). "Glossary". Science and Health With Key to the Scriptures. p. 587. Retrieved 2009-03-11. GOD – The great I AM; the all-knowing, all-seeing, all-acting, all-wise, all-loving, and eternal; Principle; Mind; Soul; Spirit; Life; Truth; Love; all substance; intelligence.
Doctrine and Covenants 131:7
"Abraham 5:7". www.churchofjesuschrist.org. Retrieved 2020-07-14.
"Abraham 3:22". www.churchofjesuschrist.org. Retrieved 2020-07-14.
"Topical Guide: Intelligence, Intelligences". www.churchofjesuschrist.org. Retrieved 2020-07-14.
Michels, John (January 18, 1884). Science: Volume 3. Highwire Press, Jestor: American Association for the Advancement of Science. pp. 74–75. Retrieved 24 November 2021. [...] because of the improvement in philosophy [...] men began to break loose from the trammels of Greek and mediaeval metaphysics, and to realize that a process is not explained by the arbitrary assumption of some hypothetical cause invented to account for it. So long as the phenomena exhibited by living things were regarded, not as manifestations of the properties of the kind of matter of which they were composed, but as mere exhibitions of the activity of an extrinsic independent entity, a pneuma, anima, vital spirit, or vital principle which had temporarily taken up its residence in the body of an animal, but had no more essential connection with that body than a tenant with the house in which he lives, - there was no need for physiological laboratories. [...] Both Harvey and Descartes, however, still believed in a special locally placed vital spirit or vital force, which animated the whole bodily frame as the engine in a great factory moves all the machinery in it.
Miles, Leroyce (7 August 2018). "Spirit". Introduction to the Study of Religion. Waltham Abbey, Essex: Scientific e-ResourcesED-Tech Press (published 2018). p. 98. ISBN 978-1839473630. Retrieved 6 December 2021. Various forms of animism, such as Japan's Shinto and African traditional religion, focus on invisible beings that represent or connect with plants, animals (sometimes called 'Animal Fathers'), or landforms (kami): translators usually employ the English word "spirit" when trying to express the idea of such entities.
Legge, James (2010). The Analects of Confucius. Auckland: Floating Press. ISBN 978-1775417958.
Salamone, Frank A. (2004). Levinson, David (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals. New York: Routledge. p. 225. ISBN 0-415-94180-6.
Salamone, Frank A. (2004). Levinson, David (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals. New York: Routledge. p. 225. ISBN 0-415-94180-6.
Jung, C. G. (1960). "Spirit and Life". In Hull, R. F. C. (ed.). The Collected Works of C. G. Jung. XX. Vol. 8. New York: Pantheon Books for Bollinger. pp. 319–320.^{[ISBN missing]}
Chodkiewicz, M., “Rūḥāniyya”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 18 November 2019 doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6323 First published online: 2010
Hyslop, James Hervey (1919). Contact with the Other World (First ed.). New York: The Century Co. p. 11.
OED: "spirit 2.a.: The soul of a person, as commended to God, or passing out of the body, in the moment of death."
For example: Sill, Ernest R. (September 1996) [1897]. What Happens at Death and What Is Our Condition After Death? (3 ed.). Pomeroy, Washington: Health Research Books (published 1996). p. 16. ISBN 978-0787307929. Retrieved 24 November 2021. [...] the spirit and soul which occupied and used the body have withdrawn from it. [...] Soul and spirit both survive death.

[1] Burtt, Edwin A. (2003). Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. p. 275.

[2] See François 2009, pp. 187–197.

[3] anə-, from *ə₂enə₁-. Watkins, Calvert. 2000. The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, second edition. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., p. 4. Also available online. (NB: Watkins uses ə₁, ə₂, ə₃ as fully equivalent variants for h₁, h₂, h₃, respectively, for the notation of Proto-Indo-European laryngeal segments.)

[4] bhes-² (with zero grade *bhs- devoicing leading to *phs- and later ps- in Classical Greek). Watkins, Calvert. 2000. The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, second edition. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 2000, p. 11. Also available online.

[5] Koehler, L., Baumgartner, W., Richardson, M. E. J., & Stamm, J. J. (1999). The Hebrew and Aramaic lexicon of the Old Testament (electronic ed.) (711). Leiden; New York: E.J. Brill.

[6] Brown, F., Driver, S. R., & Briggs, C. A. (2000). Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (electronic ed.) (659). Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems. (N.B. Corresponds closely to printed editions.)^{[ISBN missing]}

[7] Brown, F., Driver, S. R., & Briggs, C. A. (2000). Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (electronic ed.) (924ff.). Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems. (N.B. Corresponds closely to printed editions.)^{[ISBN missing]}

[8] See the Wiktionary entries for Geist and esprit.

[9] "Ruach: Spirit or Wind or ???". BiblicalHeritage.org. Archived from the original on 6 October 2015.

[10] "Stoicism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. January 20, 2023. Retrieved July 3, 2023.

[11] Companion Bible – KJV by E. W. Bullinger, Kregel Publications, 1999. ISBN 0825420997. p. 146.

[12] Konsmo, Erik (2010). The Pauline Metaphors of the Holy Spirit: The Intangible Spirit's Tangible Presence in the Life of the Christian. New York: Peter Lang. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4331-0691-0.

[13] Eddy, Mary Baker (1875). "Glossary". Science and Health With Key to the Scriptures. p. 587. Retrieved 2009-03-11. GOD – The great I AM; the all-knowing, all-seeing, all-acting, all-wise, all-loving, and eternal; Principle; Mind; Soul; Spirit; Life; Truth; Love; all substance; intelligence.

[14] Doctrine and Covenants 131:7

[15] "Abraham 5:7". www.churchofjesuschrist.org. Retrieved 2020-07-14.

[16] "Abraham 3:22". www.churchofjesuschrist.org. Retrieved 2020-07-14.

[17] "Topical Guide: Intelligence, Intelligences". www.churchofjesuschrist.org. Retrieved 2020-07-14.

[18] Michels, John (January 18, 1884). Science: Volume 3. Highwire Press, Jestor: American Association for the Advancement of Science. pp. 74–75. Retrieved 24 November 2021. [...] because of the improvement in philosophy [...] men began to break loose from the trammels of Greek and mediaeval metaphysics, and to realize that a process is not explained by the arbitrary assumption of some hypothetical cause invented to account for it. So long as the phenomena exhibited by living things were regarded, not as manifestations of the properties of the kind of matter of which they were composed, but as mere exhibitions of the activity of an extrinsic independent entity, a pneuma, anima, vital spirit, or vital principle which had temporarily taken up its residence in the body of an animal, but had no more essential connection with that body than a tenant with the house in which he lives, - there was no need for physiological laboratories. [...] Both Harvey and Descartes, however, still believed in a special locally placed vital spirit or vital force, which animated the whole bodily frame as the engine in a great factory moves all the machinery in it.

[19] Miles, Leroyce (7 August 2018). "Spirit". Introduction to the Study of Religion. Waltham Abbey, Essex: Scientific e-ResourcesED-Tech Press (published 2018). p. 98. ISBN 978-1839473630. Retrieved 6 December 2021. Various forms of animism, such as Japan's Shinto and African traditional religion, focus on invisible beings that represent or connect with plants, animals (sometimes called 'Animal Fathers'), or landforms (kami): translators usually employ the English word "spirit" when trying to express the idea of such entities.

[20] Legge, James (2010). The Analects of Confucius. Auckland: Floating Press. ISBN 978-1775417958.

[21] Salamone, Frank A. (2004). Levinson, David (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals. New York: Routledge. p. 225. ISBN 0-415-94180-6.

[22] Salamone, Frank A. (2004). Levinson, David (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals. New York: Routledge. p. 225. ISBN 0-415-94180-6.

[23] Jung, C. G. (1960). "Spirit and Life". In Hull, R. F. C. (ed.). The Collected Works of C. G. Jung. XX. Vol. 8. New York: Pantheon Books for Bollinger. pp. 319–320.^{[ISBN missing]}

[24] Chodkiewicz, M., “Rūḥāniyya”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 18 November 2019 doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6323 First published online: 2010

[25] Hyslop, James Hervey (1919). Contact with the Other World (First ed.). New York: The Century Co. p. 11.

[26] OED: "spirit 2.a.: The soul of a person, as commended to God, or passing out of the body, in the moment of death."

[27] For example: Sill, Ernest R. (September 1996) [1897]. What Happens at Death and What Is Our Condition After Death? (3 ed.). Pomeroy, Washington: Health Research Books (published 1996). p. 16. ISBN 978-0787307929. Retrieved 24 November 2021. [...] the spirit and soul which occupied and used the body have withdrawn from it. [...] Soul and spirit both survive death.

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@@ Zeile 10: / Zeile 10: @@
 == <span id="Etymology">Etymology</span> ==
-<p>The word ''spirit'' came into [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English Middle English] via [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_French Old French] [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/esperit#Middle_French ''esperit'']. Its source is [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin Latin] [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/spiritus#Latin ''spīritus''], whose original meaning was "breath, breathing" and hence "spirit, soul, courage, vigor";<sup id="cite_ref-polysemy_2-0" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-polysemy-2 [2]]</sup> its ultimate origin is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language Proto-Indo-European] root ''<span class="Unicode" title="Proto-Indo-European language"><span lang="ine">*(s)peis</span></span>''.</p><p>In Latin, <em lang="la">spīritus</em> was distinct from Latin [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anima#Latin ''anima''], whose etymological meaning was also "breathing" ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language PIE] root [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h%E2%82%82enh%E2%82%81- *''h₂enh₁-'']),<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-3 [3]]</sup> yet which had taken a slightly different meaning, namely "[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul soul]".</p><p>The distinction between "soul" and "spirit" in English mirrors that between "psykhē" and "pneuma" in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek Classical Greek], with both words having a connection to breathing:</p>
+<p>The word ''spirit'' came into [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English Middle English] via [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_French Old French] [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/esperit#Middle_French ''esperit'']. Its source is [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin Latin] [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/spiritus#Latin ''spīritus''], whose original meaning was "breath, breathing" and hence "spirit, soul, courage, vigor";<sup id="cite_ref-polysemy_2-0" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-polysemy-2 [2]]</sup> its ultimate origin is a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language Proto-Indo-European] root ''<span class="Unicode" title="Proto-Indo-European language"><span lang="ine">*(s)peis</span></span>''.</p>
+<p>In Latin, <em lang="la">spīritus</em> was distinct from Latin [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anima#Latin ''anima''], whose etymological meaning was also "breathing" ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language PIE] root [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h%E2%82%82enh%E2%82%81- *''h₂enh₁-'']),<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-3 [3]]</sup> yet which had taken a slightly different meaning, namely "[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul soul]".</p>
+<p>The distinction between "soul" and "spirit" in English mirrors that between "psykhē" and "pneuma" in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek Classical Greek], with both words having a connection to breathing:</p>
 *<em lang="grc-Latn">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psyche_(psychology) psykhē]</em> ([https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%88%CF%85%CF%87%CE%AE#Ancient_Greek ψυχή]), originally "cold air", hence "breath of life" and "soul"<sup id="cite_ref-polysemy_2-1" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-polysemy-2 [2]]</sup> ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language PIE] root ''<span class="Unicode" title="Proto-Indo-European language"><span lang="ine">*bhes-</span></span>'' "to breathe").<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-4 [4]]</sup>
 *<em lang="grc-Latn">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneuma pneuma]</em> ([https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%80%CE%BD%CE%B5%E1%BF%A6%CE%BC%CE%B1#Ancient_Greek πνεῦμα]) "breath, motile air, spirit", from verb <em lang="grc-Latn">pnéō</em> ([https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%80%CE%BD%CE%AD%CF%89#Ancient_Greek πνέω]) "to breathe".
 <p>A distinction between soul and spirit also developed in the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions Abrahamic religions]: Arabic <em lang="ar-Latn">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafs nafs]</em> ([https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3#Etymology_2 نفس]) opposite <em lang="ar-Latn">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%AB%E1%B8%A5 rūḥ]</em> ([https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AD#Etymology_1 روح]); Hebrew ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul#Judaism neshama]'' (<span class="script-hebrew" dir="rtl">נְשָׁמָה</span>‎ <em lang="he-Latn">nəšâmâh</em>) or ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nephesh nephesh]'' (<span class="script-hebrew" dir="rtl">נֶ֫פֶשׁ</span>‎ <em lang="he-Latn">nép̄eš</em>) (in Hebrew <em lang="he-Latn">neshama</em> comes from the root <em lang="he-Latn">NŠM</em> or "breath") opposite <em lang="he-Latn">ruach</em> (<span class="script-hebrew" dir="rtl">רוּחַ</span>‎ <em lang="he-Latn">rúaħ</em>). (Note, however, that in Semitic just as in Indo-European, this dichotomy has not ''always'' been as neat historically as it has come to be taken over a long period of development: Both <span class="script-hebrew" dir="rtl">נֶ֫פֶשׁ</span>‎ (root <span class="script-hebrew" dir="rtl">נפשׁ</span>‎) and <span class="script-hebrew" dir="rtl">רוּחַ</span>‎ (root <span class="script-hebrew" dir="rtl">רוח</span>‎), as well as cognate words in various Semitic languages, including Arabic, also preserve meanings involving miscellaneous air phenomena: "breath", "wind", and even "odour".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-5 [5]]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-6 [6]]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-7 [7]]</sup>)</p>
 === <span id="Related_terms">Related terms</span> ===
-<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note">See also: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruach_HaKodesh Ruach HaKodesh]</div><p>Similar concepts in other languages include Chinese ''Ling'' and ''hun'' (靈魂) and Sanskrit ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akasha akasha] / [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism) atman]''<sup id="cite_ref-polysemy_2-2" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-polysemy-2 [2]]</sup> (see also ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prana prana]''). Some languages use a word for spirit often closely related (if not synonymous) to ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind mind]''. Examples include the German ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geist Geist]'' (related to the English word ''ghost'') or the French ''l'esprit''.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-8 [8]]</sup>English versions of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible Bible] most commonly translate the Hebrew word ''ruach'' (רוח; ''wind'') as "the spirit."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-9 [9]]</sup></p><p>Alternatively, Hebrew texts commonly use the word ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nephesh nephesh]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabbalah Kabbalists] regard ''nephesh'' as one of the five parts of the Jewish [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul soul], where ''nephesh''(animal) refers to the physical being and its animal instincts. Similarly, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavian_languages Scandinavian], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_languages Baltic], and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_languages Slavic] languages use the words for ''breath'' to express concepts similar to "the spirit".<sup id="cite_ref-polysemy_2-3" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-polysemy-2 [2]]</sup></p>
+<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note">See also: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruach_HaKodesh Ruach HaKodesh]</div>
+<p>Similar concepts in other languages include Chinese ''Ling'' and ''hun'' (靈魂) and Sanskrit ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akasha akasha] / [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism) atman]''<sup id="cite_ref-polysemy_2-2" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-polysemy-2 [2]]</sup> (see also ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prana prana]''). Some languages use a word for spirit often closely related (if not synonymous) to ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind mind]''. Examples include the German ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geist Geist]'' (related to the English word ''ghost'') or the French ''l'esprit''.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-8 [8]]</sup>English versions of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible Bible] most commonly translate the Hebrew word ''ruach'' (רוח; ''wind'') as "the spirit."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-9 [9]]</sup></p>
+<p>Alternatively, Hebrew texts commonly use the word ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nephesh nephesh]''. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabbalah Kabbalists] regard ''nephesh'' as one of the five parts of the Jewish [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul soul], where ''nephesh''(animal) refers to the physical being and its animal instincts. Similarly, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavian_languages Scandinavian], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_languages Baltic], and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_languages Slavic] languages use the words for ''breath'' to express concepts similar to "the spirit".<sup id="cite_ref-polysemy_2-3" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-polysemy-2 [2]]</sup></p>
 == <span id="Views">Views</span> ==
 === <span id="Ancient_Greece">Ancient Greece</span> ===
-<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note">Main article: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneuma Pneuma]</div><p>In [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine Ancient Greek medicine] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy philosophy] generally, the spirit (''pneuma,'' literally "breath") was thought to be the animating force in living creatures.</p><p>In [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicism Stoicism], spirit is an all-pervading force frequently identified with God. The soul (''psyche'') was thought to be a particular kind of ''pneuma'', which was present in humans and animals, but not in plants.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-10 [10]]</sup></p>
+<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note">Main article: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneuma Pneuma]</div>
+<p>In [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine Ancient Greek medicine] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy philosophy] generally, the spirit (''pneuma,'' literally "breath") was thought to be the animating force in living creatures.</p>
+<p>In [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicism Stoicism], spirit is an all-pervading force frequently identified with God. The soul (''psyche'') was thought to be a particular kind of ''pneuma'', which was present in humans and animals, but not in plants.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-10 [10]]</sup></p>
 === <span id="Christianity">Christianity</span> ===
-<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note">See also: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneuma#Christian_philosophy Pneuma § Christian philosophy], and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unclean_spirit#The_concept_of_pneuma Unclean spirit § The concept of pneuma]</div><p>The Christian [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament New Testament] uses the term ''pneuma'' to refer to "spirit", "spiritual" and specifically to the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity Holy Spirit].<sup id="cite_ref-CompanionBible_11-0" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-CompanionBible-11 [11]]</sup> The relationship between the Holy Spirit in Christianity and spirit in other religions is unclear. The distinction between ''psyche'' and ''pneuma'' may be borrowed from the Hellenistic religions through [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism Hellenistic Jews] such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo Philo], a view held by the so-called [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_religions_school History of religions school].<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-0" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-:0-12 [12]]</sup></p><p>However, others think that the Holy Spirit may actually resemble the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicism Stoic] concept of the ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anima_mundi anima mundi]'', or world soul, more than the ''pneuma''. According to theologian Erik Konsmo, there is no relationship between the ''pneuma'' in Greek philosophy and the ''pneuma'' in Christianity beyond the use of the word itself.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-1" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-:0-12 [12]]</sup></p><p>The new religious movement [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Science Christian Science] uses "Spirit" as one of seven synonyms for [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God God], as in: "Principle; Mind; Soul; Spirit; Life; Truth; Love"<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-13 [13]]</sup></p><p>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement Latter Day Saint] prophet [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Smith_Jr. Joseph Smith Jr.] (1805-1844) rejected the concept of spirit as incorporeal or without substance: "There is no such thing as immaterial matter. All spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned by purer eyes."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-14 [14]]</sup> Regarding the soul, Joseph Smith wrote "And the Gods formed man from the dust of the ground, and took his spirit (that is, the man’s spirit), and put it into him; and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living soul."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-15 [15]]</sup> Thus, the soul is the combination of a spirit with a body (although most members of the Church use "soul" and "spirit" interchangeably). In Latter-Day Saint scripture, spirits are sometimes referred to as "intelligences".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-16 [16]]</sup> However, other LDS scriptures teach that God organized the spirits out of a pre-existing substance called "intelligence" or "the light of truth".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-17 [17]]</sup> While this may seem confusing, compare how a programmer writes an algorithm by organizing lines of logical code. The logic always existed, independent of the programmer, but it is the creator who organizes it into a living spirit / intelligence / soul.</p>
+<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note">See also: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneuma#Christian_philosophy Pneuma § Christian philosophy], and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unclean_spirit#The_concept_of_pneuma Unclean spirit § The concept of pneuma]</div>
+<p>The Christian [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament New Testament] uses the term ''pneuma'' to refer to "spirit", "spiritual" and specifically to the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity Holy Spirit].<sup id="cite_ref-CompanionBible_11-0" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-CompanionBible-11 [11]]</sup> The relationship between the Holy Spirit in Christianity and spirit in other religions is unclear. The distinction between ''psyche'' and ''pneuma'' may be borrowed from the Hellenistic religions through [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism Hellenistic Jews] such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo Philo], a view held by the so-called [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_religions_school History of religions school].<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-0" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-:0-12 [12]]</sup></p>
+<p>However, others think that the Holy Spirit may actually resemble the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicism Stoic] concept of the ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anima_mundi anima mundi]'', or world soul, more than the ''pneuma''. According to theologian Erik Konsmo, there is no relationship between the ''pneuma'' in Greek philosophy and the ''pneuma'' in Christianity beyond the use of the word itself.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-1" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-:0-12 [12]]</sup></p>
+<p>The new religious movement [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Science Christian Science] uses "Spirit" as one of seven synonyms for [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God God], as in: "Principle; Mind; Soul; Spirit; Life; Truth; Love"<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-13 [13]]</sup></p>
+<p>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement Latter Day Saint] prophet [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Smith_Jr. Joseph Smith Jr.] (1805-1844) rejected the concept of spirit as incorporeal or without substance: "There is no such thing as immaterial matter. All spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned by purer eyes."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-14 [14]]</sup> Regarding the soul, Joseph Smith wrote "And the Gods formed man from the dust of the ground, and took his spirit (that is, the man’s spirit), and put it into him; and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living soul."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-15 [15]]</sup> Thus, the soul is the combination of a spirit with a body (although most members of the Church use "soul" and "spirit" interchangeably). In Latter-Day Saint scripture, spirits are sometimes referred to as "intelligences".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-16 [16]]</sup> However, other LDS scriptures teach that God organized the spirits out of a pre-existing substance called "intelligence" or "the light of truth".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-17 [17]]</sup> While this may seem confusing, compare how a programmer writes an algorithm by organizing lines of logical code. The logic always existed, independent of the programmer, but it is the creator who organizes it into a living spirit / intelligence / soul.</p>
 === <span id="17th_century_Europe">17th century Europe</span> ===
 <p>As recently as 1628 and 1633 respectively, both [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Harvey William Harvey] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes René Descartes] still speculated that somewhere within the body, in a special locality, there was a "vital spirit" or "vital force", which animated the whole bodily frame, just as the engine in a factory moves the machinery in it.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-18 [18]]</sup></p>
 === <span id="Animism">Animism</span> ===
 <p>Various forms of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animism animism], such as Japan's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinto Shinto] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_traditional_religion African traditional religion], focus on invisible beings that represent or connect with plants, animals, or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landform landforms] (in Japanese: ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kami kami]''): translators usually employ the English word "spirit" when trying to express the idea of such entities.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-19 [19]]</sup> Compare the concepts of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancestral_spirits ancestral spirits] and of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_animal_(disambiguation) spirit animals].</p>
 === <span id="Chinese_culture">Chinese culture</span> ===
-<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note">Main article: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qi Qi]</div><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note">See also: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hun_and_po Hun and po]</div><p>The traditional [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_culture Chinese] concept of ''qi'' is a kind of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism vital force] forming part of any living being. The exact meaning of the term morphed over the course of the development of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_philosophy Chinese philosophy]. The literal meaning of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language Chinese language] term ''qi'' (气), like many analogous concepts in other cultures, derives from the word for "breath";<sup id="cite_ref-polysemy_2-4" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-polysemy-2 [2]]</sup> this may have been the meaning of the word in the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analects Analects] of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius Confucius].<sup id="cite_ref-Confucius_20-0" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-Confucius-20 [20]]</sup></p><p>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_gods_and_immortals Gods], especially [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropomorphism anthropromorphic] gods, are sometimes thought to have ''qi'' and be a reflection of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcosm%E2%80%93macrocosm_analogy microcosm] of qi in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_21-0" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-:03-21 [21]]</sup> Qi also was in natural forces, where it could be controlled by gods and harnessed by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_(supernatural) magicians].<sup id="cite_ref-:032_22-0" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-:032-22 [22]]</sup></p>
+<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note">Main article: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qi Qi]</div>
+<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note">See also: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hun_and_po Hun and po]</div>
+<p>The traditional [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_culture Chinese] concept of ''qi'' is a kind of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism vital force] forming part of any living being. The exact meaning of the term morphed over the course of the development of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_philosophy Chinese philosophy]. The literal meaning of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language Chinese language] term ''qi'' (气), like many analogous concepts in other cultures, derives from the word for "breath";<sup id="cite_ref-polysemy_2-4" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-polysemy-2 [2]]</sup> this may have been the meaning of the word in the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analects Analects] of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius Confucius].<sup id="cite_ref-Confucius_20-0" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-Confucius-20 [20]]</sup></p>
+<p>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_gods_and_immortals Gods], especially [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropomorphism anthropromorphic] gods, are sometimes thought to have ''qi'' and be a reflection of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcosm%E2%80%93macrocosm_analogy microcosm] of qi in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_21-0" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-:03-21 [21]]</sup> Qi also was in natural forces, where it could be controlled by gods and harnessed by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_(supernatural) magicians].<sup id="cite_ref-:032_22-0" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-:032-22 [22]]</sup></p>
 === <span id="Jung">Jung</span> ===
-<p>According to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._G._Jung C. G. Jung] (in a lecture delivered to the literary Society of Augsburg, 20&nbsp;October 1926, on the theme of “Nature and Spirit”):</p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The connection between spirit and life is one of those problems involving factors of such complexity that we have to be on our guard lest we ourselves get caught in the net of words in which we seek to ensnare these great enigmas. For how can we bring into the orbit of our thought those limitless complexities of life which we call "Spirit" or "Life" unless we clothe them in verbal concepts, themselves mere counters of the intellect? The mistrust of verbal concepts, inconvenient as it is, nevertheless seems to me to be very much in place in speaking of fundamentals. "Spirit" and "Life" are familiar enough words to us, very old acquaintances in fact, pawns that for thousands of years have been pushed back and forth on the thinker's chessboard. The problem must have begun in the grey dawn of time, when someone made the bewildering discovery that the living breath which left the body of the dying man in the last death-rattle meant more than just air in motion. It can scarcely be an accident [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onomatopoeic onomatopoeic] words like ''ruach'' ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew Hebrew]), ''ruch'' ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic Arabic]), ''roho'' ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swahili_language Swahili]) mean 'spirit' no less clearly than ''πνεύμα''(''pneuma'', [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language Greek]) and ''spiritus'' ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language Latin]).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-23 [23]]</sup></p></blockquote>
+<p>According to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._G._Jung C. G. Jung] (in a lecture delivered to the literary Society of Augsburg, 20&nbsp;October 1926, on the theme of “Nature and Spirit”):</p>
+<blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The connection between spirit and life is one of those problems involving factors of such complexity that we have to be on our guard lest we ourselves get caught in the net of words in which we seek to ensnare these great enigmas. For how can we bring into the orbit of our thought those limitless complexities of life which we call "Spirit" or "Life" unless we clothe them in verbal concepts, themselves mere counters of the intellect? The mistrust of verbal concepts, inconvenient as it is, nevertheless seems to me to be very much in place in speaking of fundamentals. "Spirit" and "Life" are familiar enough words to us, very old acquaintances in fact, pawns that for thousands of years have been pushed back and forth on the thinker's chessboard. The problem must have begun in the grey dawn of time, when someone made the bewildering discovery that the living breath which left the body of the dying man in the last death-rattle meant more than just air in motion. It can scarcely be an accident [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onomatopoeic onomatopoeic] words like ''ruach'' ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew Hebrew]), ''ruch'' ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic Arabic]), ''roho'' ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swahili_language Swahili]) mean 'spirit' no less clearly than ''πνεύμα''(''pneuma'', [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language Greek]) and ''spiritus'' ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language Latin]).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-23 [23]]</sup></p></blockquote>
 === <span id="Islam">Islam</span> ===
-<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note">Main article: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%AB%E1%B8%A5 Rūḥ]</div><div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note">See also: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichotomy_of_soul_and_spirit_in_Islamic_philosophy Dichotomy of soul and spirit in Islamic philosophy]</div><p>People have frequently conceived of spirit as a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernatural supernatural] being, or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-physical_entity non-physical entity]; for example, a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demon demon], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost ghost], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairy fairy], or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel angel].<sup id="cite_ref-polysemy_2-5" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-polysemy-2 [2]]</sup> In ancient [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam Islamic] terminology however, the term ''spirit'' (''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%AB%E1%B8%A5 rūḥ]''), applies only to "pure" spirits, but not to other invisible creatures, such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinn jinn], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaitan demons] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angels_in_Islam angels].<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-24 [24]]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template">[''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability need quotation to verify]'']</sup></p>
+<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note">Main article: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%AB%E1%B8%A5 Rūḥ]</div>
+<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note">See also: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichotomy_of_soul_and_spirit_in_Islamic_philosophy Dichotomy of soul and spirit in Islamic philosophy]</div>
+<p>People have frequently conceived of spirit as a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernatural supernatural] being, or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-physical_entity non-physical entity]; for example, a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demon demon], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost ghost], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairy fairy], or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel angel].<sup id="cite_ref-polysemy_2-5" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-polysemy-2 [2]]</sup> In ancient [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam Islamic] terminology however, the term ''spirit'' (''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%AB%E1%B8%A5 rūḥ]''), applies only to "pure" spirits, but not to other invisible creatures, such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinn jinn], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaitan demons] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angels_in_Islam angels].<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-24 [24]]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template">[''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability need quotation to verify]'']</sup></p>
 === <span id="Psychical_research">Psychical research</span> ===
 <p>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology Psychical research], "In all the publications of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Psychical_Research Society for Psychical Research] the term 'spirit' stands for ''the personal [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness_(psychology) stream of consciousness]''whatever else it may ultimately be proved to imply or require" ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_H._Hyslop James H. Hyslop], 1919).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-25 [25]]</sup></p>
 == <span id="Death">Death</span> ==
-<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note">Main article: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterlife Afterlife]</div><p>The concepts of spirit and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul soul] often overlap,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-26 [26]]</sup> and some systems propose that both survive bodily death.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-27 [27]]</sup></p><p>In some belief systems, the "spirit" may separate from the body upon death and remain in the world in the form of a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost ghost], i.e. a manifestation of the spirit of a deceased person.</p>
+<div class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable" role="note">Main article: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterlife Afterlife]</div>
+<p>The concepts of spirit and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul soul] often overlap,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-26 [26]]</sup> and some systems propose that both survive bodily death.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(animating_force)#cite_note-27 [27]]</sup></p>
+<p>In some belief systems, the "spirit" may separate from the body upon death and remain in the world in the form of a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost ghost], i.e. a manifestation of the spirit of a deceased person.</p>
 == <span id="See_also">See also</span> ==
@@ Zeile 55: / Zeile 84: @@
 == <span id="References">References</span> ==
-<div class="reflist"><references /></div>
+<div class="reflist">
+#<span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBurtt2003" class="citation book cs1">Burtt, Edwin A. (2003). ''Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science''. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. p.&nbsp;275.</cite></span>
+#<span class="reference-text">See [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_(vital_essence)#polysemy François 2009], pp. 187–197.</span>
+#<span class="reference-text">'''anə-''', from *''ə<sub>2</sub>enə<sub>1</sub>-''. Watkins, Calvert. 2000. ''The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots'', second edition. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., p. 4. Also [https://web.archive.org/web/20071208010420/http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE17.html available online]. (NB: Watkins uses '''ə<sub>1</sub>''', '''ə<sub>2</sub>''', '''ə<sub>3</sub>''' as fully equivalent variants for '''h<sub>1</sub>''', '''h<sub>2</sub>''', '''h<sub>3</sub>''', respectively, for the notation of Proto-Indo-European [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laryngeal_theory laryngeal segments].)</span>
+#<span class="reference-text">'''''bhes-'''''<sup>2</sup> (with [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_grade#Zero_grade zero grade] <span class="Unicode" title="Proto-Indo-European language"><span lang="ine">*bhs-</span></span> [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant_voicing_and_devoicing devoicing] leading to ''*phs-'' and later <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><em lang="grc-Latn">ps-</em></span> in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek Classical Greek]). Watkins, Calvert. 2000. ''The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots'', second edition. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 2000, p. 11. Also [https://web.archive.org/web/20071208011042/http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE60.html available online].</span>
+#<span class="reference-text">Koehler, L., Baumgartner, W., Richardson, M. E. J., & Stamm, J. J. (1999). The Hebrew and Aramaic lexicon of the Old Testament (electronic ed.) (711). Leiden; New York: E.J. Brill.</span>
+#<span class="reference-text">Brown, F., Driver, S. R., & Briggs, C. A. (2000). Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (electronic ed.) (659). Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems. (N.B. Corresponds closely to printed editions.)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template">[''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources <span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN&nbsp;missing</span>]'']</sup></span>
+#<span class="reference-text">Brown, F., Driver, S. R., & Briggs, C. A. (2000). Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (electronic ed.) (924ff.). Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems. (N.B. Corresponds closely to printed editions.)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template">[''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources <span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN&nbsp;missing</span>]'']</sup></span>
+#<span class="reference-text">See the Wiktionary entries for ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Geist#German Geist]'' and ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/esprit#French esprit]''.</span>
+#<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20151006125829/http://www.biblicalheritage.org/Bible%20Studies/ruach.htm "Ruach: Spirit or Wind or ???"]. ''BiblicalHeritage.org''. Archived from [http://www.biblicalheritage.org/Bible%20Studies/ruach.htm the original] on 6 October 2015.</cite></span>
+#<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1">[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/stoicism/ "Stoicism"]. ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]''. January 20, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 3,</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>
+#<span class="reference-text">''Companion Bible – KJV ''by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._W._Bullinger E. W. Bullinger], Kregel Publications, 1999. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ISBN]&nbsp;[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0825420997 0825420997]. p. 146.</span>
+#<span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKonsmo2010" class="citation book cs1">Konsmo, Erik (2010). [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGNYNuWP31EC ''The Pauline Metaphors of the Holy Spirit: The Intangible Spirit's Tangible Presence in the Life of the Christian'']. New York: Peter Lang. p.&nbsp;2. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ISBN]&nbsp;[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4331-0691-0 <bdi>978-1-4331-0691-0</bdi>].</cite></span>
+#<span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFEddy1875" class="citation book cs1">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Baker_Eddy Eddy, Mary Baker] (1875). [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext02/shkts11.txt "Glossary"]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Health_With_Key_to_the_Scriptures ''Science and Health With Key to the Scriptures'']. p.&nbsp;587<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-03-11</span></span>. <q>'''GOD''' – The great I AM; the all-knowing, all-seeing, all-acting, all-wise, all-loving, and eternal; Principle; Mind; Soul; Spirit; Life; Truth; Love; all substance; intelligence.</q></cite></span>
+#<span class="reference-text">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctrine_and_Covenants Doctrine and Covenants] [https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/131?lang=eng 131:7]</span>
+#<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1">[https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/abr/5.7?lang=eng&clang=eng#p7 "Abraham 5:7"]. ''www.churchofjesuschrist.org''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-14</span></span>.</cite></span>
+#<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1">[https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/abr/3.22?lang=eng&clang=eng#p22 "Abraham 3:22"]. ''www.churchofjesuschrist.org''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-14</span></span>.</cite></span>
+#<span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1">[https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/gs/intelligence-intelligences?lang=eng "Topical Guide: Intelligence, Intelligences"]. ''www.churchofjesuschrist.org''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-14</span></span>.</cite></span>
+#<span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMichels1884" class="citation book cs1">Michels, John (January 18, 1884). [https://books.google.com/books?id=0IECAAAAYAAJ&q=scientist+who+believe+that+the+vital+force+within+all+living+things+is+spirit&pg=PA75 ''Science: Volume 3'']. Highwire Press, Jestor: American Association for the Advancement of Science. pp.&nbsp;74–75<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 November</span> 2021</span>. <q>[...] because of the improvement in philosophy [...] men began to break loose from the trammels of Greek and mediaeval metaphysics, and to realize that a process is not explained by the arbitrary assumption of some hypothetical cause invented to account for it. So long as the phenomena exhibited by living things were regarded, not as manifestations of the properties of the kind of matter of which they were composed, but as mere exhibitions of the activity of an extrinsic independent entity, a pneuma, anima, vital spirit, or vital principle which had temporarily taken up its residence in the body of an animal, but had no more essential connection with that body than a tenant with the house in which he lives, - there was no need for physiological laboratories. [...] Both Harvey and Descartes, however, still believed in a special locally placed vital spirit or vital ''force'', which animated the whole bodily frame as the engine in a great factory moves all the machinery in it.</q></cite></span>
+#<span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMiles2018" class="citation book cs1">Miles, Leroyce (7 August 2018). "Spirit". [https://books.google.com/books?id=A-TEDwAAQBAJ ''Introduction to the Study of Religion'']. Waltham Abbey, Essex: Scientific e-ResourcesED-Tech Press (published 2018). p.&nbsp;98. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ISBN]&nbsp;[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1839473630 <bdi>978-1839473630</bdi>]<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2021</span>. <q>Various forms of animism, such as Japan's Shinto and African traditional religion, focus on invisible beings that represent or connect with plants, animals (sometimes called 'Animal Fathers'), or landforms (kami): translators usually employ the English word "spirit" when trying to express the idea of such entities.</q></cite></span>
+#<span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLegge2010" class="citation book cs1">Legge, James (2010). ''The Analects of Confucius''. Auckland: Floating Press. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ISBN]&nbsp;[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1775417958 <bdi>978-1775417958</bdi>].</cite></span>
+#<span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSalamone2004" class="citation book cs1">Salamone, Frank A. (2004). Levinson, David (ed.). ''Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals''. New York: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge Routledge]. p.&nbsp;225. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ISBN]&nbsp;[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-94180-6 <bdi>0-415-94180-6</bdi>].</cite></span>
+#<span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSalamone2004" class="citation book cs1">Salamone, Frank A. (2004). Levinson, David (ed.). ''Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals''. New York: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge Routledge]. p.&nbsp;225. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ISBN]&nbsp;[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-94180-6 <bdi>0-415-94180-6</bdi>].</cite></span>
+#<span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJung1960" class="citation book cs1">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_G._Jung Jung, C. G.] (1960). "Spirit and Life". In Hull, R. F. C. (ed.). ''The Collected Works of C. G. Jung''. XX. Vol.&nbsp;8. New York: Pantheon Books for Bollinger. pp.&nbsp;319–320.</cite><sup class="noprint Inline-Template">[''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources <span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN&nbsp;missing</span>]'']</sup></span>
+#<span class="reference-text">Chodkiewicz, M., “Rūḥāniyya”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 18 November 2019 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) doi]:[https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_6323 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6323] First published online: 2010</span>
+#<span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHyslop1919" class="citation book cs1">Hyslop, James Hervey (1919). [https://archive.org/details/contactwithother01hysl ''Contact with the Other World''] (First&nbsp;ed.). New York: The Century Co. p.&nbsp;[https://archive.org/details/contactwithother01hysl/page/11 11].</cite></span>
+#<span class="reference-text">[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary OED]: "spirit 2.a.: The soul of a person, as commended to God, or passing out of the body, in the moment of death."</span>
+#<span class="reference-text">For example: <cite id="CITEREFSill1996" class="citation book cs1">Sill, Ernest R. (September 1996) [1897]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fP78YuqmAzUC ''What Happens at Death and What Is Our Condition After Death?''] (3&nbsp;ed.). Pomeroy, Washington: Health Research Books (published 1996). p.&nbsp;16. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ISBN]&nbsp;[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0787307929 <bdi>978-0787307929</bdi>]<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 November</span> 2021</span>. <q>[...] the spirit and soul which occupied and used the body have withdrawn from it. [...] Soul and spirit both survive death.</q></cite></span>
+</div>

Nikolaos (Diskussion | Beiträge)