„ÜHA/12“ – Versionsunterschied
| [ungesichtete Version] | [ungesichtete Version] |
Keine Bearbeitungszusammenfassung |
Keine Bearbeitungszusammenfassung |
||
| Zeile 66: | Zeile 66: | ||
20) οὐδέποτε ἐπὶ τοῦ αὐτοῦ ἅμα ἀληθεύονται· ἀντίκεινται] οὐδέποτε ἅμα· ἀντίκεινται M-P | 20) οὐδέποτε ἐπὶ τοῦ αὐτοῦ ἅμα ἀληθεύονται· ἀντίκεινται] οὐδέποτε ἅμα· ἀντίκεινται M-P | ||
21) ἅμα ἐπὶ τοῦ αὐτοῦ ἀληθεύονται. ὁμοίως] ἅμα. ὁμοίως M-P{{Anmrkng Enzlnchws}} | 21) ἅμα ἐπὶ τοῦ αὐτοῦ ἀληθεύονται. ὁμοίως] ἅμα. ὁμοίως M-P | ||
As these distinctions have been made, we must consider the mutual relation of those affirmations and denials which assert or deny possibility or contingency, impossibility or necessity: for the subject is not without difficulty. | |||
We admit that of composite expressions those are contradictory each to each which have the verb ‘to be’ its positive and negative form respectively. Thus the contradictory of the proposition ‘man is’ is ‘man is not’, not ‘not-man is’, and the contradictory of ‘man is white’ is ‘man is not white’, not ‘man is not-white’. For otherwise, since either the positive or the negative proposition is true of any subject, it will turn out true to say that a piece of wood is a man that is not white. | |||
Now if this is the case, in those propositions which do not contain the verb ‘to be’ the verb which takes its place will exercise the same function. Thus the contradictory of ‘man walks’ is ‘man does not walk’, not ‘not-man walks’; for to say ‘man walks’ merely equivalent to saying ‘man is walking’. | |||
If then this rule is universal, the contradictory of ‘it may be’ is may not be’, not ‘it cannot be’. | |||
Now it appears that the same thing both may and may not be; for instance, everything that may be cut or may walk may also escape cutting and refrain from walking; and the reason is that those things that have potentiality in this sense are not always actual. In such cases, both the positive and the negative propositions will be true; for that which is capable of walking or of being seen has also a potentiality in the opposite direction. | |||
But since it is impossible that contradictory propositions should both be true of the same subject, it follows that’ it may not be’ is not the contradictory of ‘it may be’. For it is a logical consequence of what we have said, either that the same predicate can be both applicable and inapplicable to one and the same subject at the same time, or that it is not by the addition of the verbs ‘be’ and ‘not be’, respectively, that positive and negative propositions are formed. If the former of these alternatives must be rejected, we must choose the latter. | |||
The contradictory, then, of ‘it may be’ is ‘it cannot be’. The same rule applies to the proposition ‘it is contingent that it should be’; the contradictory of this is ‘it is not contingent that it should be’. The similar propositions, such as ‘it is necessary’ and ‘it is impossible’, may be dealt with in the same manner. For it comes about that just as in the former instances the verbs ‘is’ and ‘is not’ were added to the subject-matter of the sentence ‘white’ and ‘man’, so here ‘that it should be’ and ‘that it should not be’ are the subject-matter and ‘is possible’, ‘is contingent’, are added. These indicate that a certain thing is or is not possible, just as in the former instances ‘is’ and ‘is not’ indicated that certain things were or were not the case. | |||
The contradictory, then, of ‘it may not be’ is not ‘it cannot be’, but ‘it cannot not be’, and the contradictory of ‘it may be’ is not ‘it may not be’, but cannot be’. Thus the propositions ‘it may be’ and ‘it may not be’ appear each to imply the other: for, since these two propositions are not contradictory, the same thing both may and may not be. But the propositions ‘it may be’ and ‘it cannot be’ can never be true of the same subject at the same time, for they are contradictory. Nor can the propositions ‘it may not be’ and ‘it cannot not be’ be at once true of the same subject. | |||
The propositions which have to do with necessity are governed by the same principle. The contradictory of ‘it is necessary that it should be’, is not ‘it is necessary that it should not be,’ but ‘it is not necessary that it should be’, and the contradictory of ‘it is necessary that it should not be’ is ‘it is not necessary that it should not be’. | |||
Again, the contradictory of ‘it is impossible that it should be’ is not ‘it is impossible that it should not be’ but ‘it is not impossible that it should be’, and the contradictory of ‘it is impossible that it should not be’ is ‘it is not impossible that it should not be’. | |||
To generalize, we must, as has been stated, define the clauses ‘that it should be’ and ‘that it should not be’ as the subject-matter of the propositions, and in making these terms into affirmations and denials we must combine them with ‘that it should be’ and ‘that it should not be’ respectively. | |||
We must consider the following pairs as contradictory propositions: | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|It may be. | |||
|It cannot be. | |||
|- | |||
|It is contingent. | |||
|It is not contingent. | |||
|- | |||
|It is impossible. | |||
|It is not impossible. | |||
|- | |||
|It is necessary. | |||
|It is not necessary. | |||
|- | |||
|It is true. | |||
|It is not true. | |||
|} | |||
{{Anmrkng Enzlnchws}} | |||
</noinclude> | </noinclude> | ||
Aktuelle Version vom 4. August 2024, 16:18 Uhr
▶Nachdem dies auseinander gesetzt worden, habe ich zu untersuchen, wie sich die Bejahungen und Verneinungen des Möglich-seins und des Unmöglich-seins, sowie die des Statthaft– und Nichtstatthaft-seins zu einander verhalten und ebenso habe ich auch das Unmögliche und Nothwendige zu untersuchen, denn es bestehen hier einige Bedenken. Wenn nehmlich von diesen in einer Satzverbindung ausgesprochenen Bestimmungen diejenigen einander als widersprechendgegenüber stehen, welche nach dem Sein oder Nicht – sein einander gegenüber gestellt werden, so ist z.B. die Verneinung von Mensch-sein die: Mensch nicht-sein und nicht die: Nicht-Mensch sein; und die Verneinung von: Weisser Menschsein ist: Weisser Mensch nicht-sein, aber nicht: Nicht-weisser Mensch sein. Denn wenn von allen Dingen entweder die Bejahung oder die Verneinung wahr ist, so kann man auch in Wahrheit sagen, dass das Holz ein Nicht-weisser-Mensch ist. Wenn also dies in Wahrheit sich so verhält und wenn da, wo das ist nicht hinzugefügt wird, dasselbe durch das, statt des ist gesetzten Wortes ausgedrückt wird, so ist auch die Verneinung von: der Mensch geht, nicht die: der Nicht-Mensch geht, sondern vielmehr die: der Mensch geht – nicht; da es dasselbe ist, ob man sagt: der Mensch geht, oder: der Mensch ist ein Gehender.
Wenn dies nun überall sich so verhält, so könnte wohl auch die Verneinung von Möglich-sein die sein: Möglich nicht-sein und nicht die: Nicht-möglich sein. Indess scheint doch, dass derselbe Gegenstand vermögend ist, zu sein und nicht-zusein; denn alles, bei dem es möglich ist, dass es geschnitten werden, oder gehen kann, bei dem ist es auch möglich, dass es nicht geht oder nicht geschnitten wird. Der Grund hiervon ist, dass alles, dem diese Möglichkeit einwohnt, nicht immer thätig ist und deshalb wohnt ihm auch die Verneinung ein, da das zum Gehen Fähige auch nicht gehen und das Wahrnehmbare auch nicht wahrgenommen werden kann. Nun ist es aber unmöglich, dass die entgegengesetzten Aussagen von ein und demselben Gegenstande wahr seien und deshalb kann die Verneinung von: Möglich-sein nicht die sein: Möglich nicht-sein.
Hieraus ergiebt sich also, dass man entweder von demselben Gegenstande dasselbe zugleich bejahen und verneinen kann oder dass durch das Sein oder Nicht-sein die beigefügte Bestimmung des Möglichen nicht zu einer Bejahung oder Verneinung wird. Wenn nun ersteres unmöglich ist, so wird man letzteres annehmen müssen und sonach ist die richtige Verneinung von: Möglich-sein die: Nicht-möglich-sein.
Ebenso verhält es sich mit dem Statthaft-sein; auch hier lautet die Verneinung: Nicht-statthaft-sein. Auch mit den anderen, wie mit dem Nothwendigen und Unmöglichen verhält es sich ebenso. In den früher behandelten Fällen war nehmlich das Sein oder Nicht-sein die hinzugefügte Bestimmung und das Weiss oder Mensch waren die unterliegenden Gegenstände; hier ist aber das Sein oder Nicht-sein gleichsam das unterliegende und das Mögliche oder Statthafte sind die hinzugefügten Bestimmungen. So wie dort das Sein oder Nicht-sein das Wahre und das Falsche bezeichnet, so verhält es sich hier mit dem Möglich-sein und Nicht-möglich-sein. Die Verneinung von der Aussage: Möglich nicht – sein ist also nicht die Aussage: Nicht-möglich sein, sondern die Aussage: Nicht-möglich nicht-sein. Ebenso ist von dem: Möglich sein die Verneinung nicht: Möglich nicht-sein, sondern Nicht-möglich sein. Deshalb dürften auch wohl das: Möglich sein und das: Möglich nicht-sein in derselben Reihe einander folgen und sich gegenseitig austauschen. Ein und dasselbe kann möglicherweise sein und auch nicht sein, weil die Aussagen: Möglich sein und Möglich nicht-sein einander nicht widersprechen. Dagegen kann das Möglich sein und das Nicht-möglich sein niemals bei demselben Gegenstande zu derselben Zeit wahr sein, da diese Bestimmungen einander widersprechen.
Ebenso wird niemals das Möglich nicht-sein und das Nicht-möglich nicht-sein bei demselben Gegenstande gleichzeitig wahr sein. Ebenso, ist die Verneinung von: Nothwendig sein, nicht die: Nothwendig nicht-sein, sondern: Nicht-nothwendig sein; und die Verneinung von Nothwendig nicht-sein lautet: Nicht-nothwendig nicht-sein. Auch von dem: Unmöglich sein ist die Verneinung nicht: Unmöglich nicht-sein, sondern Nicht-unmöglich sein; und von dem Unmöglich nicht-sein ist die Verneinung: Nicht-unmöglich nicht-sein.
Ueberhaupt muss hier, wie gesagt, das Sein und das Nicht-sein als das Unterliegende aufgefasst wer den und dasjenige, was die Bejahung und Verneinung hervorbringt, darf nur dem Sein oder Nicht-sein hinzugefügt werden. Sonach hat man als widersprechende Aussagen zu nehmen: Möglich und nicht – möglich; Statthaft, und nicht-statthaft; Unmöglich und nicht-unmöglich; Nothwendig und nicht-nothwendig; Wahr und nicht-wahr.
Τούτων δὲ διωρισμένων σκεπτέον ὅπως ἔχουσιν αἱ ἀποφάσεις καὶ καταφάσεις πρὸς ἀλλήλας αἱ τοῦ δυνατὸν εἶναι [35] καὶ μὴ δυνατὸν καὶ ἐνδεχόμενον καὶ μὴ ἐνδεχόμενον, καὶ περὶ τοῦ ἀδυνάτου τε καὶ ἀναγκαίου· ἔχει γὰρ ἀπορίας τινάς. εἰ γὰρ τῶν συμπλεκομένων αὗται ἀλλήλαις ἀντίκεινται 1) ἀντιφάσεις, ὅσαι κατὰ τὸ εἶναι καὶ μὴ εἶναι τάττονται, οἷον [21b] τοῦ εἶναι ἄνθρωπον ἀπόφασις τὸ μὴ εἶναι ἄνθρωπον, οὐ τὸ εἶναι μὴ ἄνθρωπον, καὶ τοῦ εἶναι λευκὸν ἄνθρωπον τὸ μὴ εἶναι λευκὸν ἄνθρωπον, ἀλλ' οὐ τὸ εἶναι μὴ λευκὸν ἄνθρωπον. εἰ γὰρ κατὰ παντὸς ἡ κατάφασις ἢ ἡ ἀπόφασις, τὸ ξύλον ἔσται ἀληθὲς εἰπεῖν εἶναι μὴ λευκὸν ἄνθρωπον. εἰ δὲ τοῦτο 2) οὕτως, [5] καὶ ὅσοις τὸ εἶναι μὴ προστίθεται, τὸ αὐτὸ ποιήσει τὸ ἀντὶ τοῦ εἶναι λεγόμενον, οἷον τοῦ ἄνθρωπος βαδίζει οὐ τὸ οὐκ ἄνθρωπος βαδίζει ἀπόφασις ἔσται 3), ἀλλὰ τὸ οὐ βαδίζει ἄνθρωποςo οὐδὲν γὰρ διαφέρει εἰπεῖν ἄνθρωπον βαδίζειν ἢ ἄνθρωπον βαδίζοντα εἶναι. ὥστε εἰ οὕτως 4) πανταχοῦ, καὶ τοῦ δυνατὸν εἶναι [10] ἀπόφασις ἔσται 5) τὸ δυνατὸν μὴ εἶναι, ἀλλ' οὐ τὸ μὴ δυνατὸν εἶναι. δοκεῖ δὲ τὸ αὐτὸ δύνασθαι καὶ εἶναι καὶ μὴ εἶναι· πᾶν γὰρ τὸ δυνατὸν τέμνεσθαι ἢ βαδίζειν καὶ μὴ βαδίζειν καὶ μὴ τέμνεσθαι δυνατόν. λόγος δέ 6), ὅτι ἅπαν τὸ οὕτω δυνατὸν οὐκ ἀεὶ ἐνεργεῖ, ὥστε ὑπάρξει αὐτῶι καὶ ἡ ἀπόφασις· [15] δύναται γὰρ καὶ μὴ βαδίζειν τὸ βαδιστικὸν καὶ μὴ ὁρᾶσθαι τὸ ὁρατόν. ἀλλὰ μὴν ἀδύνατον κατὰ τοῦ αὐτοῦ ἀληθεύεσθαι τὰς ἀντικειμένας φάσεις· οὐκ ἄρα τοῦ δυνατὸν εἶναι ἀπόφασίς ἐστι τὸ δυνατὸν μὴ εἶναι. 7) συμβαίνει γὰρ ἐκ τούτων ἢ τὸ αὐτὸ φάναι καὶ ἀποφάναι ἅμα καὶ 8) κατὰ τοῦ αὐτοῦ, ἢ μὴ [20] κατὰ τὸ εἶναι καὶ μὴ εἶναι τὰ προστιθέμενα γίνεσθαι 9) φάσεις καὶ ἀποφάσεις. εἰ οὖν ἐκεῖνο ἀδύνατον, τοῦτ' ἂν εἴη αἱρετόν. ἔστιν ἄρα ἀπόφασις τοῦ δυνατὸν εἶναι τὸ μὴ δυνατὸν εἶναι. ὁ δ' αὐτὸς λόγος καὶ περὶ τοῦ ἐνδεχόμενον εἶναι· καὶ γὰρ τούτου ἀπόφασις τὸ μὴ ἐνδεχόμενον εἶναι. καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων [25] δὲ ὁμοιοτρόπως, οἷον ἀναγκαίου τε καὶ ἀδυνάτου. γίνεται 10) γάρ ὥσπερ ἐπ' ἐκείνων τὸ εἶναι καὶ τὸ 11) μὴ εἶναι προσθέσεις, τὰ δ' ὑποκείμενα πράγματα τὸ μὲν λευκὸν τὸ δ' 12)ἄνθρωπος, οὕτως ἐνταῦθα τὸ μὲν εἶναι καὶ μὴ εἶναι 13) ὡς ὑποκείμενον γίνεται 14), τὸ δὲ δύνασθαι καὶ ἐνδέχεσθαι προσθέσεις διορίζουσαι, [30]ὥσπερ ἐπ' ἐκείνων τὸ εἶναι καὶ μὴ εἶναι, τὸ ἀληθές καὶ τὸ ψεῦδος 15), ὁμοίως αὗται ἐπὶ τοῦ εἶναι δυνατὸν καὶ εἶναι οὐ δυνατόν. τοῦ δὲ δυνατὸν μὴ εἶναι ἀπόφασις οὐ τὸ οὐ δυνατὸν εἶναι, ἀλλὰ τὸ οὐ δυνατὸν μὴ εἶναι, καὶ τοῦ δυνατὸν εἶναι οὐ τὸ δυνατὸν μὴ εἶναι, ἀλλά τὸ μὴ δυνατὸν εἶναι 16). διὸ καὶ ἀκολουθεῖν [35] ἂν δόξαιεν ἀλλήλαις αἱ τοῦ 17) δυνατὸν εἶναι καὶ 18) δυνατὸν μὴ εἶναι· τὸ γὰρ αὐτὸ δυνατὸν εἶναι καὶ μὴ εἶναι· οὐ γὰρ ἀντιφάσεις ἀλλήλων αἱ τοιαῦται, τὸ δυνατὸν εἶναι καὶ δυνατὸν μὴ εἶναι. 19) ἀλλὰ τὸ δυνατὸν εἶναι καὶ μὴ δυνατὸν εἶναι οὐδέποτε [22a] ἐπὶ τοῦ αὐτοῦ ἅμα ἀληθεύονται· ἀντίκεινται 20) γάρ. οὐδέ γε τὸ δυνατὸν μὴ εἶναι καὶ οὐ δυνατὸν μὴ εἶναι οὐδέποτε ἅμα ἐπὶ τοῦ αὐτοῦ ἀληθεύονται 21). ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τοῦ ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι ἀπόφασις οὐ τὸ ἀναγκαῖον μὴ εἶναι, ἀλλὰ τὸ μὴ ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι· τοῦ δὲ ἀναγκαῖον μὴ εἶναι τὸ μὴ ἀναγκαῖον μὴ εἶναι. [5] καὶ τοῦ ἀδύνατον εἶναι οὐ τὸ ἀδύνατον μὴ εἶναι, ἀλλὰ τὸ μὴ ἀδύνατον εἶναι· τοῦ δὲ ἀδύνατον μὴ εἶναι τὸ οὐκ ἀδύνατον μὴ εἶναι. καὶ καθόλου δέ, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, τὸ μὲν εἶναι καὶ μὴ εἶναι δεῖ τιθέναι ὡς τὰ ὑποκείμενα, κατάφασιν δὲ καὶ ἀπόφασιν ταῦτα ποιοῦντα πρὸς τὸ εἶναι καὶ μὴ εἶναι συνάπτειν. [10] καὶ ταύτας οἴεσθαι χρὴ εἶναι τὰς ἀντικειμένας φάσεις, δυνατόν – οὐ δυνατόν, ἐνδεχόμενον – οὐκ ἐνδεχόμενον, ἀδύνατον – οὐκ ἀδύνατον, ἀναγκαῖον – οὐκ ἀναγκαῖον, ἀληθές – οὐκ ἀληθές.
_____________
1) ἀντίκεινται ἀντιφάσεις] ἀντίκεινται αἱ ἀντιφάσεις M-P
2) δὲ τοῦτο οὕτως] δὲ οὕτως M-P
3) ἀπόφασις ἔσται, ἀλλὰ] ἀπόφασις, ἀλλὰ M-P
4) οὕτως] οὕτω M-P
5) ἀπόφασις ἔσται τὸ] ἀπόφασις τὸ M-P
6) δέ] δ' M-P
7) ἄρα τοῦ δυνατὸν εἶναι ἀπόφασίς ἐστι τὸ δυνατὸν μὴ εἶναι. συμβαίνει] ἄρα αὕτη
ἀπόφασις· συμβαίνει M-P
8) ἅμα καὶ κατὰ] ἅμα κατὰ M-P
9) γίνεσθαι] γίγνεσθαι M-P
10) γίνεται] γίγνεται M-P
11) καὶ τὸ μὴ] καὶ μὴ M-P
12) δ'] δὲ M-P
13) εἶναι καὶ μὴ εἶναι ὡς] εἶναι ὡς M-P
14) γίνεται] γίγνεται M-P
15) ἀληθές καὶ τὸ ψεῦδος, ὁμοίως] ἀληθές, ὁμοίως M-P
16) ἀπόφασις οὐ τὸ οὐ δυνατὸν εἶναι, ἀλλὰ τὸ οὐ δυνατὸν μὴ εἶναι, καὶ τοῦ δυνατὸν εἶναι οὐ
τὸ δυνατὸν μὴ εἶναι, ἀλλά τὸ μὴ δυνατὸν εἶναι. διὸ] ἀπόφασις τὸ οὐ δυνατὸν μὴ εἶναι. διὸ
M-P
17) αἱ τοῦ δυνατὸν] αἱ δυνατὸν M-P
18) εἶναι καὶ δυνατὸν] εἶναι – δυνατὸν M-P
19) καὶ δυνατὸν μὴ εἶναι. ἀλλὰ] καὶ μὴ εἶναι· οὐ γὰρ ἀντιφάσεις ἀλλήλων αἱ τοιαῦται. ἀλλὰ
M-P
20) οὐδέποτε ἐπὶ τοῦ αὐτοῦ ἅμα ἀληθεύονται· ἀντίκεινται] οὐδέποτε ἅμα· ἀντίκεινται M-P
21) ἅμα ἐπὶ τοῦ αὐτοῦ ἀληθεύονται. ὁμοίως] ἅμα. ὁμοίως M-P
As these distinctions have been made, we must consider the mutual relation of those affirmations and denials which assert or deny possibility or contingency, impossibility or necessity: for the subject is not without difficulty.
We admit that of composite expressions those are contradictory each to each which have the verb ‘to be’ its positive and negative form respectively. Thus the contradictory of the proposition ‘man is’ is ‘man is not’, not ‘not-man is’, and the contradictory of ‘man is white’ is ‘man is not white’, not ‘man is not-white’. For otherwise, since either the positive or the negative proposition is true of any subject, it will turn out true to say that a piece of wood is a man that is not white.
Now if this is the case, in those propositions which do not contain the verb ‘to be’ the verb which takes its place will exercise the same function. Thus the contradictory of ‘man walks’ is ‘man does not walk’, not ‘not-man walks’; for to say ‘man walks’ merely equivalent to saying ‘man is walking’.
If then this rule is universal, the contradictory of ‘it may be’ is may not be’, not ‘it cannot be’.
Now it appears that the same thing both may and may not be; for instance, everything that may be cut or may walk may also escape cutting and refrain from walking; and the reason is that those things that have potentiality in this sense are not always actual. In such cases, both the positive and the negative propositions will be true; for that which is capable of walking or of being seen has also a potentiality in the opposite direction.
But since it is impossible that contradictory propositions should both be true of the same subject, it follows that’ it may not be’ is not the contradictory of ‘it may be’. For it is a logical consequence of what we have said, either that the same predicate can be both applicable and inapplicable to one and the same subject at the same time, or that it is not by the addition of the verbs ‘be’ and ‘not be’, respectively, that positive and negative propositions are formed. If the former of these alternatives must be rejected, we must choose the latter.
The contradictory, then, of ‘it may be’ is ‘it cannot be’. The same rule applies to the proposition ‘it is contingent that it should be’; the contradictory of this is ‘it is not contingent that it should be’. The similar propositions, such as ‘it is necessary’ and ‘it is impossible’, may be dealt with in the same manner. For it comes about that just as in the former instances the verbs ‘is’ and ‘is not’ were added to the subject-matter of the sentence ‘white’ and ‘man’, so here ‘that it should be’ and ‘that it should not be’ are the subject-matter and ‘is possible’, ‘is contingent’, are added. These indicate that a certain thing is or is not possible, just as in the former instances ‘is’ and ‘is not’ indicated that certain things were or were not the case.
The contradictory, then, of ‘it may not be’ is not ‘it cannot be’, but ‘it cannot not be’, and the contradictory of ‘it may be’ is not ‘it may not be’, but cannot be’. Thus the propositions ‘it may be’ and ‘it may not be’ appear each to imply the other: for, since these two propositions are not contradictory, the same thing both may and may not be. But the propositions ‘it may be’ and ‘it cannot be’ can never be true of the same subject at the same time, for they are contradictory. Nor can the propositions ‘it may not be’ and ‘it cannot not be’ be at once true of the same subject.
The propositions which have to do with necessity are governed by the same principle. The contradictory of ‘it is necessary that it should be’, is not ‘it is necessary that it should not be,’ but ‘it is not necessary that it should be’, and the contradictory of ‘it is necessary that it should not be’ is ‘it is not necessary that it should not be’.
Again, the contradictory of ‘it is impossible that it should be’ is not ‘it is impossible that it should not be’ but ‘it is not impossible that it should be’, and the contradictory of ‘it is impossible that it should not be’ is ‘it is not impossible that it should not be’.
To generalize, we must, as has been stated, define the clauses ‘that it should be’ and ‘that it should not be’ as the subject-matter of the propositions, and in making these terms into affirmations and denials we must combine them with ‘that it should be’ and ‘that it should not be’ respectively.
We must consider the following pairs as contradictory propositions:
| It may be. | It cannot be. |
| It is contingent. | It is not contingent. |
| It is impossible. | It is not impossible. |
| It is necessary. | It is not necessary. |
| It is true. | It is not true. |
Einzelnachweise